Rodney Douglas

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Work phone:
+41 44/ 635 3051
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Current research interests include; experimental anatomy and physiology of visual cerebral cortex; theoretical analysis and
simulation of cortical circuits; design and fabrication of
neuromorphic systems; use of analog Very Large Scale Integration
methods to construct electronic circuits that perform analogous signal
processing and computational functions to biological neuronal
networks; the development of neuromorphic robots that use analog
VLSI chips for sensory, motor, and higher order processing; self-constructing simple behaving organisms; and self-constructing neural networks.

Teaching

INI-401 Introduction to Neuroinformatics
INI-404 Neuromorphic Engineering I
INI-405 Neuromorphic Engineering II
INI-431 Foundational Literature of Neuroscience
INI-701 Kolloquium in Neuroinformatik

Publications

2011

  • Douglas, R.J. and Martin, K.A.C. What's Black and White About the Grey Matter?, Neuroinformatics, 9: 167-179, 2011
  • Muir, D.R. and Da Costa, N.M.A. and Girardin, C.C. and Naaman, S. and Omer, D.B. and Ruesch, E. and Grinvald, A. and Douglas, R.J. Embedding of Cortical Representations by the Superficial Patch System, Cerebral Cortex, 21:(10) 2244-2260, 2011
  • Muir, D R and Douglas, R J From neural arbors to daisies, Cerebral Cortex, 21:(5) 1118-1133, 2011
  • Neftci, E. and Chicca, E. and Indiveri, G. and Douglas, R. A systematic method for configuring vlsi networks of spiking neurons, Neural computation, 23:(10) 2457-2497, 2011
  • Rutishauser, U and Douglas, R J and Slotine, J J Collective stability of networks of winner-take-all circuits, Neural Computation, 23:(3) 735-773, 2011
  • Zubler, F and Hauri, A and Pfister, S and Whatley, AM and Cook, M and Douglas, R An instruction language for self-construction in the context of neural networks, Frontiers in Computer Neuroscience, 5:(57), 2011

2010

  • Neftci, Emre and Chicca, Elisabetta and Cook, Matthew and Douglas, Rodney State-Dependent Sensory Processing in Networks of VLSI Spiking Neurons, Iscas proceedings 2010, 2010
  • Binzegger, T and Douglas, R J and Martin, K A C An axonal perspective on cortical circuits, New Aspects of Anoxal Structure and Function 117-139, 2010
  • Douglas, R J and Martin, K A C Canonical cortical circuits, Handbook of Brain Microcircuits 15-21, 2010

2009

  • Andreas, Steimer and Wolfgang, Maass and Douglas, Rodney Belief-Propagation in Networks of Spiking Neurons, Neural Computation, 2009
  • Conradt, J and Cook, M and Berner, R and Lichtsteiner, P and Douglas, RJ and Delbruck , T A Pencil Balancing Robot using a Pair of AER Dynamic Vision Sensors, International Conference on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS) 781-785, 2009
  • Indiveri, G. and Chicca, E. and Douglas, R. Artificial cognitive systems: From VLSI networks of spiking neurons to neuromorphic cognition, Cognitive Computation, 1:(2) 119-127, 2009
  • Oster , M. and Douglas, R. J. and Liu, S-C. Computation with Spikes in a Winner-Take-All Network, Neural Computation, 21:(9) 2436-2465, 2009
  • Pilaz, LJ and Patti, D and Marcy, G and Ollier, E and Pfister, S and Douglas, RJ and Betizeau, M and Cortay, V and Doerflinger, N and Kennedy, H and Dehay, C Forced G1-phase reduction alters mode of division, neuron number, and laminar phenotype in the cerebral cortex., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106:(51) 21924-9, 2009
  • Rutishauser, U. and Douglas, R.J. State dependent computation using coupled recurrent networks, Neural Computation, 21:(2), 2009
  • Serrano-Gotarredona, R. and Oster, M. and Lichtsteiner, P. and Linares-Barranco, A. and Paz-Vicente, R. and Gomez-Rodriguez, F. and Camuñas-Mesa, L. and Berner, R. and Rivas, M. and Delbruck , T. and Liu, S-C. and Douglas, R. J. and Hafliger, P. and Moreno, G. and Civit, A. and Serrano-Gotarredona, T. and Acosta-Jimenez, A. and Linares-Barranco, B. CAVIAR: A 45k-Neuron, 5M-Synapse, 12G-connects/sec AER Hardware Sensory-Processing-Learning-Actuating System for High Speed Visual Object Recognition and Tracking, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 20:(9) 1417-1438, 2009
  • Zubler, F. and Douglas, R. A framework for modeling the growth and development of neurons and networks, Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 3:(25), 2009

2008

  • Conradt, J and Lichtsteiner, P and Berner, R and Delbruck, T and Douglas, RJ and Cook, M A Pencil Balancing Robot Using Only Spike-based Visual Input., Neural Information Processing Systems, 2008
  • Neftci, E. and Chicca, E. and Indiveri, G. and Slotine, J.-J. and Douglas, R. J. Contraction Properties of VLSI Cooperative Competitive Neural Networks of Spiking Neurons, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 20 1073-1080, 2008
  • Oster, M. and Yingxue, W. and Douglas, R. and Liu, S-C. Quantification of A Spike-Based Winner-Take-All VLSI Network, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I, Regular Papers, 55:(10) 3160-3169, 2008
  • Douglas, R.J. and Kennedy, H. and Knoblauch, K. and Martin, K.A.C. Computation in 3-D: the circuits of neocortex, The Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, 2008
  • Douglas, R.J. and Kennedy, H. and Martin, K.A.C. Visual cortex – neurons and local circuits, The Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, 2008
  • Indiveri, G. and Liu, S.-C. and Delbruck, T. and Douglas, R. Neuromorphic systems, The New Encyclopedia of Neuroscience 521-528, 2008

2007

  • Binzegger, T and Douglas, RJ and Martin, KAC Stereotypical patch organization of single neurons in cat primary visual cortex, Journal of Neuroscience, 27: 12242-12254, 2007
  • Chicca, E. and Indiveri, G. and Douglas, R. J. Context dependent amplification of both rate and event-correlation in a VLSI network of spiking neurons, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 19 257-264, 2007
  • Chicca, E. and Whatley, A. M. and Lichtsteiner, P. and Dante, V. and Delbruck, T. and Del Giudice, P. and Douglas, R. J. and Indiveri, G. A multi-chip pulse-based neuromorphic infrastructure and its application to a model of orientation selectivity, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I, Regular Papers, 54:(5) 981-993, 2007
  • Delbrück, T. and Whatley, A. M. and Douglas, R. and Eng, K. and Hepp, K. and Verschure, P. F. M. J. A tactile luminous floor for an interactive autonomous space , Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 55:(6) 433-443, 2007
  • Douglas, RJ and Martin, KAC The butterfly and the loom, Brain Research Reviews, 55: 314-328, 2007
  • Douglas, RJ and Martin, KAC Recurrent neuronal circuits in the neocortex, Current Opinion in Biology, 17: R496-500, 2007
  • Douglas, RJ and Martin, KAC Mapping the matrix: the ways of neocortex, Neuron, 56: 226-238, 2007
  • Oster, M. and Douglas, R. J. and Liu, S-C. Quantifying input and output statistics of a winner-take-all network in a vision system, 2007 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2007) 853-856, 2007
  • Roth, Fabian and Siegelmann, Hava and Douglas, Rodney J. The Self-Construction and -Repair of a Foraging Organism by Explictly Specified Development from a Single Cell, Artificial Life, 13:(4) 347-368, 2007
  • Indiveri, G. and Douglas, R. Neuromorphic Networks of Spiking Neurons, Handbook on "Nano- and Molecular Electronics'' 10-1 - 10-9, 2007

2006

  • Chicca, E. and Lichtsteiner, P. and Delbruck, T. and Indiveri, G. and Douglas, R. J. Modeling Orientation Selectivity Using a Neuromorphic Multi-Chip System, Proceedings of IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems 1235-1239, 2006
  • Eng, K. and Mintz, M. and Delbruck, T. and Douglas, R. J. and Whatley, A. M. and Manzolli, J. and Verschure, P. F. M. J. An Investigation of Collective Human Behavior in Large-scale, Mixed Reality Spaces, Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 15:(4) 403-418, 2006
  • Indiveri, G. and Chicca, E. and Douglas, R. A VLSI array of low-power spiking neurons and bistable synapses with spike–timing dependent plasticity, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 17:(1) 211-221, 2006
  • Wang, Y-X. and Douglas, R. and Liu, S-C. Attentional processing in a spike-based VLSI neural network, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS), 19:, 2006

2005

  • Eng, K and Douglas, R J and Verschure, P F M J An interactive space that learns to influence human behaviour, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part A, 35:(1) 66-77, 2005
  • Muir, D. R. and Indiveri, G. and Douglas, R. Form specifies function: Robust spike-based computation in analog VLSI without precise synaptic weights, IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems 5150-5153, 2005
  • Oster, M. and Whatley, A. M. and Liu, S-C. and Douglas, R. J. A hardware/software framework for real-time spiking systems, Artificial Neural Networks: Biological Inspirations – ICANN 2005: 15th International Conference, Warsaw, Poland, September 11-15, 2005. Proceedings, Part I, 3696: 161-166, 2005
  • Rutishauser, U. and Joller, J. and Douglas, R.J. Control and Learning of Ambience by an Intelligent building, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 35:(1) 121-132, 2005
  • Serrano-Gotarredona, R. and Oster, M. and Lichtsteiner, P. and Linares-Barranco, A. and Paz-Vincent, R. and Gómez-Rodríguez, F. and Kolle Riis, H. and Delbrück, T. and Liu, S. C. and Zahnd, S. and Whatley, A. M. and Douglas, R. and Häfliger, P. and Jimenez-Moreno, G. and Civit, A. and Serrano-Gotarredona, T. and Acosta-Jiménez, A. and Linares-Barranco, B. AER Building Blocks for Multi-Layer Multi-Chip Neuromorphic Vision Systems, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS), 18: 1217-1224, 2005

2004

  • Binzegger, T. and Douglas, R. and Martin, K. Axons in Cat Visual Cortex are Topologically Self-similar., Cerebral Cortex, 2004
  • Binzegger, T. and Douglas, R. and Martin, K. A quantitative map of the circuit of cat primary visual cortex., Journal of Neuroscience, 24:(39) 8441-53, 2004
  • Chicca, E. and Indiveri, G. and Douglas, R. J. An event based VLSI network of integrate-and-fire neurons, Proceedings of IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems V-357-V-360, 2004
  • Douglas, R. and Martin, K. Neuronal Circuits of the Neocortex, Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27: 419-51, 2004
  • Indiveri, G. and Chicca, E. and Douglas, R. A VLSI reconfigurable network of integrate-and-fire neurons with spike-based learning synapses, Proceedings of 12th European Symposium on Artificial Neural Networks (ESANN04) 405-410, 2004
  • Liu, S-C. and Douglas, R. Spike synchronization in a network of silicon integrate-and-fire neurons, 2004 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2004), V: 397-400, 2004
  • Liu, S-C. and Douglas, R. Temporal coding in a silicon network of integrate-and-fire neurons, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 15:(5) 1305-1314, 2004
  • Rutishauser, U and Trindler, J and Douglas, R Unsupervised learning and control provide ambient intelligence to smart buildings, The Neuromorphic Engineer, 1:(1) 3, 2004
  • Stocker, A and Douglas, R Analog Integrated 2D Optical Flow Sensor with Programmable Pixels, Int. Symposium on Circuits and Systems ISCAS, 2004

2003

  • Anderson, JC and Binzegger, T and Douglas, RJ and Martin, KAC Chance or design: Some specific considerations concerning synaptic boutons in cat visual cortex, Journal of Neurocytology, 31: 211-229, 2003
  • Chicca, E. and Indiveri, G. and Douglas, R. J. An adaptive silicon synapse, Proc. IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems,, 1: I-81-I-84, 2003
  • Delbruck, T. and Eng, K. and Baebler, A. and Bernardet, U. and Blanchard, M. and Briska, A. and Costa, M. and Douglas, R. and Hepp, K. and Klein, D. and Manzolli, J. and Mintz, M. and Roth, F. and Rutishauser, U. and Wassermann, K. and Wittmann, A. and Whatley, A. M. and Wyss, R. and Verschure, P. F. M. J. Ada: a playful interactive space, Human-Computer Interaction --- INTERACT'03 : IFIP TC13 International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, 1st-5th September 2003, Zürich, Switzerland. 989-992, 2003
  • Eng, K. and Baebler, A. and Bernardet, U. and Blanchard, M. and Costa, M. and Delbruck, T. and Douglas, R. J. and Hepp, K. and Klein, D. and Manzolli, J. and Mintz, M. and Roth, F. and Rutishauser, U. and Wassermann, K. and Whatley, A. M. and Wittmann, A. and Wyss, R. and Verschure, P. F. M. J. Ada - Intelligent Space: An artificial creature for the Swiss Expo.02, Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA 2003), 3: 4154–4159, 2003
  • Eng, K. and Klein, D. and Baebler, A. and Bernardet, U. and Blanchard, M. and Costa, M. and Delbruck, T. and Douglas, R. J. and Hepp, K. and Manzolli, J. and Mintz, M. and Roth, F. and Rutishauser, U. and Wassermann, K. and Whatley, A. M. and Wittmann, A. and Wyss, R. and Verschure, P. F. M. J. Design for a brain revisited: The neuromorphic design and functionality of the interactive space Ada, Reviews in the Neurosciences, 14:(1-2) 145-180, 2003
  • Mudra, R. and Douglas, R.J. Self-correction mechanism for path integration in a modular navigation system on the basis of an egocentric spatial map, Neural Networks, 16:(9) 1373-1388, 2003
  • Trindler, Jonas and Zwiker, Raphael and Rutishauser, Ueli and Douglas, Rodney and Joller, Joseph Discovery of logical structures in a multisensor environment based on sparse events., Workshop on Ambient Intelligence, 8th National Congress of Italian Association for Artificial Intelligence, Pisa, Italy, September 2003, 2003
  • Verschure, P.F.M.J and Voegtlin, T and Douglas, R.J. Environmentally mediated synergy between perception and behaviour in mobile robots, Nature, 425: 620-624, 2003
  • Douglas, RJ and Markram, H and Martin, KAC Neocortex, The synaptic organization of the brain 499-558, 2003
  • Douglas, RJ and Martin, KAC Artificial Brains, Neuroscience: Science of the Brain, 2003

2002

  • Douglas, R. J. and Martin, K. A. C. Stimmt es, dass Emotionen eine physische Angelegenheit sind? , Die Zeitung der universitaet Zuerich - UNIJournal(4) 24, 2002
  • Eng, K. and Bäbler, A. and Bernardet, U. and Blanchard, M. and Briska, A. and Conradt, J. and Costa, M. and Delbrück, T. and Douglas, R. J. and Hepp, K. and Klein, D. and Manzolli, J. and Mintz, M. and Netter, T. and Roth, F. and Rutishauser, U. and Wassermann, K. and Whatley, A. M. and Wittmann, A. and Wyss, R. and Verschure, P. F. M. J. Ada: Constructing a Synthetic Organism, Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS 2002), EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2: 1808-1813, 2002
  • Hahnloser, RH and Douglas, RJ and Hepp, K Attentional recruitment of inter-areal recurrent networks for selective gain control., Neural Computation, 14:(7) 1669-89, 2002
  • Liu, S-C. and Kramer, J. and Indiveri, G. and Delbruck, T. and Douglas, R. Orientation-selective aVLSI spiking neurons, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 14:, 2002
  • Douglas, R. and Rasche, C. Silicon Neurons, The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks, 2002
  • Liu, S-C. and Kramer, J. and Indiveri, G. and Delbruck, T. and Douglas, R. Analog VLSI: Circuits and Principles, 2002

2001

  • Douglas, R. Forward- and Backpropagation in a Silicon Dendrite, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 12:(2) 386-393, 2001
  • Eng, K. and Baebler, A. and Bernardet, U. and Blanchard, M. and Briska, A. and Costa, M. and Delbruck, T. and Douglas, R. and Hepp, K. and Klein, D. and Manzolli, J. and Mintz, M. and Netter, T. and Roth, F. and Wassermann, K. and Whatley, A. and Wittmann, A. and Verschure, P. Ada - Buildings as Organisms, Game, Set and Match (Proceedings), Faculty of Architecture, TU Delft, 2001
  • Indiveri, G. and Horiuchi, T. and Niebur, E. and Douglas, R. A Competitive Network of Spiking VLSI Neurons, World Congress on Neuroinformatics 2001 443-455, 2001
  • Liu, S-C. and Kramer, J. and Indiveri, G. and Delbruck, T. and Burg, T. and Douglas, R. Orientation-selective aVLSI spiking neurons, Neural Networks, 14:(6/7) 629-643, 2001

2000

  • Blank, D. and Stoop, R. and Kern, A. and Douglas, R.J. Optimal Recurrent Amplification in Biophysically Plausible NeuronModels, Proceedings of ICSC Conference 463-469, 2000
  • Hahnloser, Richard and Sarpeshkar, R. and Mahowald, Misha and Douglas, Rodney J. and Seung, S. Digital selection and analog amplification co-exist in an electronic circuit inspired by neocortex, Nature, 405: 947-951, 2000
  • Indiveri, G. and Douglas, R. ROBOTIC VISION: Neuromorphic Vision Sensor, Science, 288: 1189-1190, 2000
  • Rasche, C. and Douglas, R. An Improved Silicon Neuron, Analog Integrated Circuits and Signal Processing, 23:(3) 227-236, 2000

1999

  • Bernasconi, C. and Schindler, K. and Stoop, R. and Douglas, R.J. Complex response to periodic inhibition in simple and detailed neuronal models, Neural Computation, 11:(1) 67-74, 1999
  • Deiss, S. R. and Douglas, R. J. and Whatley, A. M. A Pulse-Coded Communications Infrastructure for Neuromorphic Systems, Pulsed Neural Networks 157-178, 1999
  • Douglas, R.J. and Koch, C. and Mahowald, M.A. and Martin, K.A.C. Recurrent excitation in neocortical circuits, Cerebral Cortex, :, 1999
  • Douglas, R. J. and Mahowald, M. A. and Whatley, A. M. Strutture di Comunicazione Nei Sistemi Analogici Neuromorfi [Communications Infrastructure for Neuromorphic Analog Systems], Frontiere della Vita, 3: 549-560, 1999
  • Hahnloser, R and Douglas, R and Mahowald, M and Hepp, K Feedback interactions between neuronal pointers and maps for attentional processing, Nature Neuroscience, 2: 746-752, 1999
  • Mudra, R. and Hahnloser, R. and Douglas, R.J. Neuromorphic Active Vision Used in Simple Navigation Behavior for a Robot, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Microelectronics for Neural Networks, 1: 32-36, 1999
  • Rasche, C. and Douglas, R.J. Silicon Synaptic Conductances, Journal of Computational Neuroscience, 7: 33-39, 1999
  • Stocker, A. A. and Douglas, R. J. Computation of Smooth Optical Flow in a Feedback Connected Analog Network, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 11:, 1999
  • Indiveri, G. and Rasche, C. and Douglas, R. Elaborazione Neuromorfa dei Segnali Sensoriali con Circuiti VLSI Analogici, Frontiere della Vita, 1999

1998

  • Ahmed, B. and Anderson, J. C. and Douglas, R. J. and Martin, K. A. C. and Whitteridge, D. Estimates of the net excitatory currents evoked by visual stimulation of identified neurons in cat visual cortex., Cerebral Cortex, 8(5): 462-76, 1998
  • Blank, D.A. and Douglas, R.J. Relationship between dendritic current transfer and current discharge relation optimizes input amplification by a population of recurrently connected neurons, Soc Neurosci Abstr, 24:, 1998
  • Douglas, R.J. and Martin, K.A.C. Neocortex, The synaptic organization of the brain 459-509, 1998
  • Rasche, C. and Douglas, R. and Mahowald, M. Characterization of a Pyramidal Silicon Neuron, Neuromorphic Systems: Engineering Silicon from Neurobiology 169-177, 1998

1997

  • Ahmed, B. and Allison, J.D. and Douglas, R.J. and Martin, K.A.C. An intracellular study of contrast-dependence of neuronal activity in cat visual cortex., Cerebral Cortex, 7: 559-570, 1997
  • Schindler, K.A. and Bernasconi, C.A. and Stoop, R. and Goodman, P.H. and Douglas, R.J. Chaotic Spike Patterns Evoked by Periodic Inhibition of Rat Cortical Neurons, Zeitschrift für Naturforschung, 52a: 509-512, 1997
  • Schindler, K.A. and Bernasconi, C.A. and Stoop, R. and Goodman, P.H. and Douglas, R.J. and Martin, K.A.C Irregular Spike Patterns Produced by Periodic Inhibition of Regularly Firing Rat Neocortical Neurons, Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 23: 397.5, 1997

1996

  • Ahmed, B. and Anderson, J. C. and Douglas, R. J. and Martin, K. A. C. and Nelson, J. C. The inhibitory innervation of spiny stellate cells of layer 4 of the cat visual cortex., Journal of Physiology, 495: 61P, 1996
  • Ahmed, B. and Anderson, J.C. and Douglas, R.J. and Martin, K. A. C. and Nelson, J. C. Estimates of the major excitatory innervation on apical dendrites of layer 5 pyramids within layer 4 of cat visual cortex., Journal of Physiology, 494: 15P, 1996
  • Allison, J.D. and Ahmed, B. and Anderson, J.C. and Douglas, R.J. and Martin, K.A.C. Contrast gain control in neurons of the cat primary visual cortex: input-output analysis, Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 22: 1705, 1996
  • Douglas, R. and Mahowald, M. Design and fabrication of analog VLSI neurons, Methods in Neuronal Modelling: From Synapses to Networks, 1996
  • Douglas, R. and Martin, K.A.C. News & Views: The Information Superflyway, Neuropsychologia, 379: 584-585, 1996
  • Douglas, R.J. and Mahowald, M.A. and Martin, K.A.C. Neuroinformatics as explanatory neuroscience., Neuroimage, 4: 25-28, 1996
  • Douglas, R.J. and Mahowald, M.A. and Martin, K.A.C. Microarchitecture of Neocortical Columns., Brain theory - biological basis and computational principles. 75-95, 1996
  • Douglas, R.J. and Mahowald, M.A. and Martin, K.A.C. and Stratford, K.J. The role of synapses in cortical computation., Journal of Neurocytology, 25: 893-911, 1996

1995

  • Douglas, R. News & Views: The Bee's Needs, Neuropsychologia, 377: 683-684, 1995
  • Douglas, R. and Mahowald, M. Silicon Neurons, The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks 282-289, 1995
  • Douglas, R. and Mahowald, M. A Constructor set for Silicon Neurons, An Introduction to Neural and Electronic Networks 277-296, 1995
  • Douglas, R. and Mahowald, M. and Mead, C. Neuromorphic Analog VLSI, Annual Review of Neuroscience, 18: 255-281, 1995
  • Douglas, R. and Martin, K.A.C. Vibrations in the memory, Neuropsychologia, 373: 563-564, 1995
  • Douglas, R. J. and Koch, C. K. and Mahowald, M. and Martin, K. A. C. and Suarez, H. H. Recurrent Excitation in Neocortical Circuits, Science, 269: 981-985, 1995

1994

  • Douglas, R. J. and Mahowald, M. A. and Martin, K. A. C. Hybrid analog-digital architectures for neuromorphic systems, Neural Networks, 1994 IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence, 3: 1848-1853, 1994
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